Rare earth elements — Structural brief

Where rare earth elements is produced

China is the largest producer of rare earth elements, at 69.4 percent of the published world total in 2025^[1]. It is followed by United States at 13.1 percent, Australia at 7.4 percent and Myanmar at 5.7 percent. The USGS puts world production at 390,000 metric tons; the sum of the country figures is 389,310 metric tons, the difference being rounding in the published total.^[1] Reserves are held principally by China (44,000,000 metric tons), Brazil (21,000,000 metric tons), Australia (6,300,000 metric tons)^[1].

How concentrated supply is

Measured by the Herfindahl-Hirschman index over production shares, rare earth elements supply is highly concentrated, with an index of 5,072. The top three producers hold 89.9 percent of output, and a single producer accounts for more than half of supply. An index below 1,500 is conventionally read as unconcentrated and above 2,500 as highly concentrated; the thresholds are the United States merger-review bands, used here as a published reference point rather than as a judgement about market conduct. The United States was 67 percent reliant on net imports for rare earths in 2025, with the principal import sources over 2021–24 being China, Malaysia, Estonia, Japan.^[2] The principal sources of United States imports over 2021–24 were China (71 percent), Malaysia (13 percent) and Japan (5 percent)^[3]. US imports under HS 284690 (Rare-earth oxides/mixtures (incl. NdPr)) are highly concentrated across supplying countries, with a Herfindahl index of 4,963 and the top three partners supplying 81 percent of value.^[4]

Trade measures in force

The USGS compilation of export controls effective January 2026 records 4 measures bearing on rare earth elements. China maintains an export licensing requirement for materials and technologies covering Antimony (2024), bismuth (2025), synthesized diamond (2025), gallium (2023), germanium (2023), graphite (2023), indium (2025), magnesium materials (2024), molybdenum (2025), rare earths (2025), silver (2026), tellurium (2025), tungsten (2025), and items related to lithium batteries and artificial graphite anode materials (2025), as compiled by the USGS from official and reported sources effective January 2026.^[5] Malaysia maintains an export ban covering Raw rare earths (2024), as compiled by the USGS from official and reported sources effective January 2026.^[5] Namibia maintains an export ban covering Ores and concentrates of cobalt, graphite, lithium, manganese, and rare earths (2023), as compiled by the USGS from official and reported sources effective January 2026.^[5] Vietnam maintains an export ban covering Raw materials of iron, lead-zinc, chromite, manganese, apatite, and rare earths and deeply processed titanium (2012), as compiled by the USGS from official and reported sources effective January 2026.^[5] A control listed here removes the tonnage concerned from the international market by law, whatever the production table implies about availability.